In the ancient Greek epic poem the ‘Iliad’, once believed to be the story of myth and legend, Homer spoke of ten cities. Today, the names of those cities can be seen in towns and villages around Greece and archaeology has already confirmed the real existence of a number of the cities including the mythical Troy. However, there is one city in with there is a curious lack of reference or knowledge anywhere in Greece – the ancient city of Lacedaemon.

Amazingly, archaeologists discovered what they believe to be the city of Lacedaemon in 2007, but any and all attempts to excavate the incredible site which thankfully has been documented by photographs, has been blocked by the Greek government.

The ancient city of Lacedaemon, a city older than the renowned Mycenae, has baffled historians and archaeologists for decades, since it is rarely spoken of and it appeared its legacy had disappeared completely.

The name of the city was given by the king of Laconia, named after Lacedaemon, the son of god Zeus and the Pleiad Taygete. His son was king Amyclas of Sparta.

A musician and tutor in classics at Oxford University has been bringing back to life the music of ancient Greece, unheard for thousands of years, using a combination of archaeology and historical documents.

Armand D'Angour has explained that in ancient Greece the classic texts and theatre used music – the epics of Homer, the love-poems of Sappho, the tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides were all, originally, music.

These well-known classics, dating from around 750 to 400 BC were all composed to be sung in whole or part to the accompaniment of the lyre, reed-pipes, and percussion instruments.  The instruments are known from descriptions, paintings and archaeological remains, which enables researchers to establish the timbres and range of pitches they produced.

As for the rhythm, the clue lies within the words themselves, in the patterns of long and short syllables. In addition, the researchers have gained an accurate indication of relative pitch by examining numerous ancient documents, found on stone in Greece and papyrus in Egypt, inscribed with a vocal notation devised around 450 BC, consisting of alphabetic letters and signs placed above the vowels of the Greek words.

One complete piece, inscribed on a marble column and dating from around 200 AD, is a short song of four lines composed by Seikilos. The notation is unequivocal and marks regular rhythmic beats. The words of the song may be translated:

While you're alive, shine,

never let your mood decline.

We've a brief span of life to spend,

Time necessitates an end.

Scheria is a mythical place in ancient Greek mythology that was the home of the legendary and mysterious Phaeacians, who were known to be masters of the seas. The first reference to this place is found in Homer’s Odyssey.

If we start with the etymology of the word Phaeacians, we will see that the first part ‘Phaios’ means ‘Grey’, probably referring to them as dark skin people. According to Homer, the kings of the Phaeacians where ancestors of the God Poseidon and started with one of his sons, Phaeax.

Phaeacians were the beloved of the Gods but also friends to humans. Their place of abode was initially mentioned to be far away at the end of the world. They were relatives to the Gods in the same way as Cyclopes and Giants were too. When Cyclopes attacked the Phaeacians then they had to move to Scheria the ‘island of the Phaeacians’, which was probably an island of unknown location (I say probably because Homer doesn’t clarify if it was an island or a place next to the sea).

The island of the Phaeacians was the last destination of Odysseus before arriving to Ithaca. Therefore, we could assume that it could be a place close to Ithaca. That assumption gave birth to the suggestion that the island of the Phaeacians was the Greek island Corfu. Corfu is one island close to Ithaca and it matches the description of Scheria in the Odyssey. However, no excavations have brought to the surface any evidence for the mythical civilization of the Phaeacians.  Furthermore, the island is so close to Ithaca that it wouldn’t have taken one night for Odysseus to arrive, as written in the Odyssey.

Argos Panoptes was one of the primordial giants of the Greek mythology. His epithet ‘Panoptes’ means the one who is all-seeing, which reminds us of the symbol of the ‘all seeing eye’ of God. However, Panoptes was an epithet that was also used for the god Zeus.

Argos Panoptes was the son of Arestor, whose wife was Mycene from whom the Mycenaean civilization and the Homeric city of Mycenae got its name. Argos is described as having 100 eyes, according to the Greek mythology. Probably this was a feature attributed to him in an allegoric way, showing his ability to perceive everything from any angle. Whenever he slept not all of the eyes would be closed, there was always at least one eye open. He is usually depicted with multiple eyes on his body (see image above). As we can see, even if he was mentioned as a ‘monster’ in reality he was a giant, a god, with super abilities.

Argos was helpful to people by killing many monsters that would create problems for the citizens of Peloponnese (an area in Southern Greece). Nothing bad is said about him in the ancient texts. One of Argos’ greatest achievement was to kill Echidna, and ancient monster that was half snake half woman, which is known as the ‘Mother of All Monsters’ – for a reason. Her children were some of the most famous monsters: Cerberus, the Sphinx of Thebes, The Lion of Nemea, the Lernean Hydra and many others.

The Iliad and the Odyssey, two of the oldest narratives to withstand time. Accredited to Homer, these poetic verses have preserved memories from an era gone by, an age of heroes. Although, it beckons the question, “Through what means?” That is, how did we get the versions we know and enjoy today?

Following the turmoil that ravaged the Eastern Mediterranean world during what academics call the Late Bronze Age (hereafter, LBA) period at approximately 1200 BCE, the known world would bring about a change like no other. In Greece, the Mycenaean palaces and outlying settlements began to be abandoned or destroyed and by 1050 BCE, all recognizable features of the Mycenaean culture vanished. In Anatolia, not only had Troy fallen but the Hittite empire collapsed and left little proof of it ever existing. Egypt was so badly weakened that it never again regained its former glory. The Near East fell into a Dark Age, marking the beginning of a new era, the Iron Age. However, all was not lost. With every passing comes a rebirth. Out of the ashes of the old arose new nations which would eventually define the Western World; nations that included Greece, Phrygia, the Neo-Hittites, Israel, etc.

Was there ever a Trojan War? That is, the almost legendary battle fought between Greeks and Trojans. This question continues to go unanswered by the academic and archaeological world. If we read from Homer and the later composed Epic Cycle, the literature would say that it did indeed occur, but what does archaeology have to say on this matter? While my hopeless romantic side wants to believe in Homer’s tale, we need to consider all of the facts and before we do that, we need to sit through a quick history lesson.

Heinrich Schliemann, a wealthy entrepreneur by profession, spent his early retirement years discovering and excavating the sites of Troy (at modern day Hisarlik, Turkey) and Mycenae (in the north-eastern part of the Peloponnese, Greece) during the late 19th century CE (Cline, 2); albeit through unorthodox and disastrous methods. He was not a trained archaeologist. Schliemann was just a simple man with a passion for Homer. In 1868, he befriended the American vice-consul of Turkey, Frank Calvert, who himself believed that the legendary city of Troy was laid underneath the Classical Greco-Roman ruins at Hisarlik. Calvert had the location and Schliemann, the money (Cline, 74). The digging commenced and would continue for years. What would be discovered is a complex multilayered city that existed from the Early Bronze Age and would eventually be abandoned during the Iron Age. Each layer would meet its end in some form or another, be it earthquake or war, giving way to resettlement and new construction.

The mythical Helen of Troy has inspired poets and artists for centuries as the woman whose beauty sparked the Trojan War.  But Helen’s character is more complex than it seems.  When considering the many Greek and Roman myths that surround Helen, from her childhood to her life after the Trojan War, a layered and fascinating woman emerges.

Helen is among the mythical characters fathered by Zeus.  In the form of a swan, Zeus either seduced or assaulted Helen’s mother Leda.  On the same night, Leda slept with her husband Tyndareus and as a result gave birth to four children, who hatched from two eggs. 

“Leda and the Swan” by Cesare da Sesto, copy of lost painting by Leonardo da Vinci (1515-1520). Image source.

From one egg came the semi-divine children, Helen and Polydeuces (who is called Pollux in Latin), and from the other egg came the mortals Clytemnestra and Castor.  The boys, collectively called the Dioscuri, became the divine protectors of sailors at sea, while Helen and Clytemnestra would go on to play important roles in the saga of the Trojan War.

In another, older myth, Helen’s parents were Zeus and Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance.  In this version, too, Helen hatched from an egg.

The Iliad of Homer concerns the tenth and final year of the Trojan War. Throughout this tale, Helen regrets her part in causing the war and longs to return to her husband and daughter, Hermione.

Penthesilea was an Amazonian Queen from Greek mythology. She was the daughter of Ares and Otrera and the sister of Hippolyta, Antiope and Melanippe.  One of many famous Amazonian Queens, Penthisilea’s story is one of fierce dedication to being a warrior, and a tragic death at the hands of Achilles.

As an Amazon, Penthesilea was a member of a legendary race of warrior women. The Amazon women were so dedicated to being warriors, that they were known to cut off one of their breasts so that they would be better able to wield a bow. Whether this is true or not is debatable. Penthesilea was highly skilled with weapons, she was very wise, and she was beautiful.  It has been said that she invented the battle-axe. While hunting one day, Penthesilea accidentally killed her sister Hippolyta with a spear. This caused Penthesilea a great deal of grief, and led her to wish for death. However, as a warrior, and an Amazon, she could only die honorably and during battle.

Penthesilea (1862), by Gabriel-Vital Dubray (1813-1892). East façade of the Cour Carrée in the Louvre palace, Paris. Image source: Wikipedia

Penthesilea’s reign as queen was during the years of the Trojan War. The Amazons did not take a particular side in the war, and Penthesiliea made an effort to stay away from the conflict for the most part. However, when Achilles killed the Trojan prince, Hector, and upon the accidental killing of her sister, Penthesilea decided that it was time for the Amazons to intervene, so the Amazons moved in on Troy.

Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love, sex, and beauty.  In one of the most famous images of the goddess, we see her emerge from the sea, a reference to her origin story.

In this older of the two stories of Aphrodite’s birth, she emerges from the sea a grown woman.  Her father is Uranos, the god of the sky, and she has no mother.  This story takes place two generations before Zeus, when Uranos reigned with his wife Gaia, the goddess of the earth.  Uranos hated his children and hid them in the depths of the earth, until Gaia, loathing her husband, devised a plan with her son Cronus.  She equipped her son with a sickle and, when Uranos next came to sleep with Gaia, Cronus chopped off his genitals.  The severed parts fell into the ocean and sea foam enveloped them.  From this foam emerged the goddess Aphrodite. 

This story was handed down to us by Hesiod, one of the earliest Greek poets.  He explains that Aphrodite’s name comes from the Greek word aphros, meaning “foam,” which could refer to the sea foam or to Uranos’ semen.  This myth is etiological, with Aphrodite’s birth from foam explaining the origin of her name.  This is a poetic invention, however, and the true etymology of Aphrodite’s name remains unknown.

In his story, Hesiod has Aphrodite float past Cytherea and emerge at Cyprus.  In Ancient Greece, both of these cities had huge cults to Aphrodite.  In fact, the temple of Aphrodite at Cyprus is as old as the 12^th century BC, long before Hesiod lived.  Just as he used a Greek word to explain the mystery of Aphrodite’s name, Hesiod here uses geographical details to explain why she was worshipped in these two cities. 

Homer’s Iliad is often considered as one of the greatest works of Western literature. For many centuries, Homer’s Troy, the city besieged by the Greeks, was considered to be a myth by scholars. During the 19^th century, however, one man embarked on a quest to prove that this legendary city actually existed. This was the German archaeologist, Heinrich Schliemann. He succeeded in his quest, and Hisarlik (the site where Schliemann excavated) is today recognised as the ancient site of Troy. Among the artifacts unearthed at Hisarlik is the so-called ‘Treasure of Priam’, which, according to Schliemann, belonged to the Trojan king, Priam.

Discovery of Priam’s treasure

In 1871, Schliemann began excavating the site of Hisarlik. After identifying a level known as ‘Troy II’ as the Troy of the Iliad, his next objective was to uncover the ‘Treasure of Priam’. As Priam was the ruler of Troy, Schliemann reasoned that he must have hidden his treasure somewhere in the city to prevent it from being captured by the Greeks should the city fall. On the 31^st of May 1873, Schliemann found the precious treasure he was seeking. In fact, Schliemann stumbled by chance upon the ‘Treasure of Priam’, as he is said to have had a glimpse of gold in the trench-face whilst straightening the side of a trench on the south-western side of the site.

Thirty kilometers (18.6 miles) from Vergina, a place where the tomb of Philip II is located, there is a city called Naoussa. Naoussa was a place where nymphs were worshiped for centuries, and the location of many beautiful landscapes, it was also the site of a school where the famous philosopher Aristotle provided his lessons to some very important students.

The School in a Paradise

Aristotle was a student of the great philosopher Plato. His philosophy was a continuation of works by his famous teacher and possibly by Socrates too. Due to his fame as of one of the greatest minds of his times, Aristotle was asked by the King of Macedonia, Phillip II, to teach his son Alexander. The school of Aristotle was located at the Nymphaion of Mieza.

The school’s surroundings looked like they came from a mythical story about nymphs and gods. The landscape was full of plants and racing waters, and the deeply-shaded caves seemed to be a perfect place to learn philosophy and many other sciences. In this beautiful location, the students of Aristotle were provided with all of his knowledge that was available in the 4th century BC.

Aristotle's School, a painting from the 1880s by Gustav Adolph Spangenberg. (Public Domain)

A Greek archaeologist says he has found part of the throne of the tragic kings of ancient Mycenae, one of whom was said to be among the Greek gods and heroes who attacked Troy and was later murdered by his wife and her lover upon his return.

Christofilis Maggidis says his team found the limestone piece in 2014 in a stream under the ruins of the citadel of Mycenae in southern Greece. Dr. Maggidis has been leading excavations at the Mycenae site since 2007. He is an associate professor of archaeology at Dickinson College in Pennsylvania, United States. He hopes to get permission from authorities to do further excavations in the streambed.

Dr. Maggidis said this is the only throne discovered from ancient Mycenae, though a smaller one was found in Knossos, the ancient seat of the royal of house of Minoa on the island of Crete. That Minoan throne predates the Mycenaeans.

The ancient throne room at Knossos (Wikimedia photo/Chris 73)

Some archaeologists have cast doubt on Dr. Maggidis’ discovery and said the stone was a basin for holding liquids, but he says the stone is porous and is therefore not suited for that purpose. According to Fox News, Maggidis maintains that the only likely purpose for the large block of stone was as a seat or throne.

The Danaan and Danites are a mystery people for many historians. Speculated to have been Greek seafarers in the late Bronze Age, they are also closely associated with the Sea Peoples who ravaged the Eastern Mediterranean during the same period. Other evidence suggests they originated somewhere along the coast of the Levant, or they were an Israelite tribe that fled with Moses during the biblical Exodus from Egypt. Whoever the Danaan or Danites were, they left a conflicting legacy.

Alexander the Great has gained an immortality in his strong presence in our minds as well as in the history books. Known for a greatness of military genius and diplomatic skills, he conquered most of the known world of his time and brought on a new era of the Hellenistic World. But who really was Alexander, the man?

The intention of this article is not to go into the whole history of Alexander’s invasion and conquest of the Near East, but rather to look at the man himself. In doing so, we will understand why Alexander invaded and will dispel some of the myths about Alexander’s intentions, in turn helping us to understand why the Greco-Macedonian Empire broke apart a little over a hundred years after his death. Nearly all traces of his once glorious empire had been tossed into the ash heap of history.

A bust of Alexander the Great (CC BY-ND 2.0)

The War Business

The army that King Philip II of Macedon left to his son Alexander was semi-professional and a paid fighting force. In order for Alexander to pay for this army, either he had to disband a portion of it to save money, risking much in doing so, or he had to go on the march to save his kingdom. Alexander choose to save his kingdom at another empire’s expense. Alexander needed to pay the bills, but would do so by looting Persia.

The mysterious, one-eyed creatures revered in Greek and Roman mythologies remain one of the most interesting creatures spoken of in the oldest Mediterranean legends. They were members of the race of giants, whose roots come from the most bygone times in the history of the world.

The ancient Greek myth of Cadmus battling a snake could be an allegory for the discovery of the Amazon River, said Dr. Enrico Mattievich, a retired professor of physics from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) in Brazil. Mattievich wrote a book titled “Journey to the Mythological Inferno” in 2011, exploring connections between Greek myths and South American geographical and historical sites.

In his poems of the Iliad, the Greek Philosopher Homer introduces us to the mythical city of Troy, which remained a curiosity to many until the late 1870s when Heinrich Schliemann, on a hunch, began excavating the remains of an ancient city in Turkey.

The ancient Greeks have contributed so much to modern civilization, especially regarding education, philosophy, science, art, politics, and language, among other things. But, their legacy does not end there. One of the most enduring things about ancient Greece is the mythology. Zeus, Minotaur, Hercules, Achilles, Prometheus… The list is virtually endless. But, while it’s a given that most myths are fiction for the most part, have you ever wondered if there is any truth in the stories? I have, and after doing my homework, here is a list of 10 secrets about Greek mythology and Ancient Greece that have only been revealed fairly recently.

1. The Trojan Horse Didn’t Really Exist

We are all familiar with the story of the Trojan Horse from Homer’s Odyssey, but it turns out that the legendary wooden horse that was used to sneak into Troy is indeed a myth. While there are no doubts about Troy being a real city which was really burned to the ground by the Greeks, there is no archaeological evidence to support the existence of the Trojan Horse, which is the source of the myth. It was probably inspired by the fact that most armies were using damp horse hides to protect themselves from flaming arrows during sieges.

Who were Demeter and Persephone? And why did their myth resonate so strongly with women of ancient Greece? The story of Demeter, goddess of the harvest, and her daughter Persephone, queen of the underworld, has inspired many.